A critical factor that led to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 was the failure of economic reforms initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev, specifically perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost (openness). While aimed at revitalizing the stagnant Soviet economy and increasing transparency, these reforms unexpectedly weakened the centralized control of the Communist Party, leading to greater public dissent and demands for independence in various republics. Additionally, the economic turmoil, including high inflation and shortages, eroded public confidence in the government. Coupled with nationalist movements within the republics, these factors precipitated the breakup of the USSR, leading to the emergence of independent states and the end of the Cold War.