The empire noted for its contributions to mathematics and astronomy was the Islamic Golden Age, which spanned from the 8th to the 14th centuries. Scholars from the Islamic world made substantial advancements in these fields, with notable figures such as Al-Khwarizmi, who is often referred to as the "father of algebra." Additionally, astronomers like Al-Battani and Ibn al-Haytham made significant strides in understanding celestial mechanics and optics. This period saw the development of complex mathematical techniques, such as the use of zero and algorithms, as well as the establishment of observatories and the translation of Greek texts into Arabic, preserving and enhancing ancient knowledge.